Everything about Smoke totally explained
» For other uses, see Smoke (disambiguation).
Smoke is the collection of airborne solid and liquid
particulates and
gases emitted when a material undergoes
combustion or
pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that's
entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. It is commonly an unwanted
by-product of fires (including
stoves,
candles,
oil lamps, and
fireplaces), but may also be used for
pest control (cf.
fumigation), communication (
smoke signals), defense (
smoke-screen) or
smoking (
tobacco,
marijuana, etc) or
inhalation of other
drugs. Smoke is sometimes used as a flavouring agent and preservative for various foodstuffs. Smoke is also sometimes a component of
internal combustion engine exhaust gas, particularly
diesel exhaust.
Smoke inhalation is the primary cause of
death in victims of indoor
fires. The smoke kills by a combination of thermal damage,
poisoning and
pulmonary irritation caused by
carbon monoxide,
hydrogen cyanide and other combustion products.
Smoke particles are an
aerosol (or
mist) of solid particles and liquid droplets that are close to the ideal range of sizes for
Mie scattering of
visible light. This effect has been likened to three-dimensional textured privacy glass — a smoke cloud doesn't obstruct an image, but thoroughly scrambles it.
Chemical composition
The composition of smoke depends on the nature of the burning fuel and the conditions of combustion.
Fires with high availability of oxygen burn at high temperature and with small amount of smoke produced; the particles are mostly composed of ash, or with large temperature differences, of condensed aerosol of water. High temperature also leads to production of
nitrogen oxides. Sulfur content yields
sulfur dioxide. Carbon and hydrogen are almost completely oxidized to
carbon dioxide and water. Fires burning with lack of oxygen produce a significantly wider palette of compounds, many of them toxic. Partial oxidation of carbon produces
carbon monoxide, nitrogen-containing materials can yield
hydrogen cyanide,
ammonia, and
nitrogen oxides. Content of halogens such as chlorine (eg. in
polyvinyl chloride) or other
halogens may lead to production of eg.
hydrogen chloride,
phosgene,
dioxin, and
chloromethane,
bromomethane and other
halocarbons.
Pyrolysis of burning material also results in production of a large amount of
hydrocarbons, both aliphatic (
methane,
ethane,
ethylene,
acetylene) and
aromatic (
benzene and its derivates,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; eg., studied as a carcinogen, or
retene),
terpenes.
Heterocyclic compounds may be also present. Heavier hydrocarbons may condense as
tar.
Presence of sulfur can lead to formation of eg.
hydrogen sulfide,
carbonyl sulfide,
sulfur dioxide,
carbon disulfide, and
thiols; especially thiols tend to get adsorbed on surfaces and produce a lingering odor even long after the fire. Partial oxidation of the released hydrocarbons yields in a wide palette of other compounds:
aldehydes (eg.
formaldehyde,
acrolein, and
furfural), ketones, alcohols (often aromatic, eg.
phenol,
guaiacol,
syringol,
catechol, and
cresols),
carboxylic acids (
formic acid,
acetic acid, etc.).
The visible particles in such smokes are most commonly composed of
carbon (
soot). Other particulates may be composed of drops of condensed tar, or solid particles of ash. The presence of metals in the fuel yields particles of metal oxides. Particles of inorganic salts may also be formed, eg.
ammonium sulfate,
ammonium nitrate. Many organic compounds, typically the aromatic hydrocarbons, may be also
adsorbed on the surface of the solid particles.
Smoke emissions may contain characteristic trace elements.
Vanadium is present in emissions from
oil fired power plants and
refineries; oil plants also emit some
nickel. Coal combustion
produces emissions containing
aluminium,
arsenic,
chromium,
cobalt,
copper,
mercury,
selenium, and
uranium.
Some components of smoke are characteristic of the combustion source.
Guaiacol and its derivatives are products of pyrolysis of
lignin and are characteristic of
wood smoke; other markers are
syringol and derivates, and other
methoxy phenols.
Retene, a product of pyrolysis of
conifer trees, is an indicator of
forest fires.
Levoglucosan is a pyrolysis product of
cellulose.
Hardwood vs
softwood smokes differ in the ratio of guaiacols/syringols. Markers for vehicle exhaust include
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
hopanes,
steranes, and specific nitroarenes (eg.
1-nitropyrene). The ratio of hopanes and steranes to elemental carbon can be used to distinguish between emissions of gasoline and diesel engines.
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Dangers of smoke
Smoke from oxygen-deprived fires contains a significant concentration of compounds that are flammable. A cloud of smoke, in contact with atmospheric oxygen, therefore has the potential of being ignited - either by another open flame in the area, or by its own temperature. This leads to effects like
backdraft and
flashover.
Many compounds of smoke from fires are highly toxic and/or irritating. The most dangerous is the
carbon monoxide, leading to
carbon monoxide poisoning, sometimes with supporting effects of
hydrogen cyanide and
phosgene.
Smoke inhalation can therefore quickly lead to incapacitation and loss of consciousness.
Smoke can obscure visibility, impeding occupant exiting from fire areas. In fact, the poor visibility due to the smoke that was in the
Worcester Cold Storage Warehouse fire in
Worcester, Massachusetts was the exact reason why the trapped rescue firefighters couldn't evacuate the building in time. Due to the striking similarity that each floor shared, the dense smoke caused the firefighters to become disoriented.
Visible and invisible particles of combustion
Depending on particle size, smoke can be
visible or
invisible to the
naked eye. This is best illustrated when
toasting bread in a toaster. As the bread heats up, the products of
combustion increase in size. The particles produced initially are invisible but become visible if the toast is
burnt.
Smoke from a typical house fire contains hundreds of different chemicals and fumes. As a result, the damage caused by the smoke can often exceed that caused by the actual heat of the fire. In addition to the physical damage caused by the smoke of a
fire - which manifests itself in the form of stains - is the often even harder to eliminate problem of a smokey odor. Just as there are contractors that specialize in rebuilding/repairing homes that have been damaged by fire and smoke,
Fabric Restoration companies specialize in restoring fabrics that have been damaged in a fire.
Medicinal smokes
Throughout recorded history, humans have used the smoke of medicinal plants to cure illness. A sculpture from Persepolis shows Darius the Great (522–486 b.c.), the king of Persia, with two censers in front of him for burning Peganum harmala and/or sandalwood Santalum album, which was believed to protect the king from evil and disease. More than 300 plant species in 5 continents are used in smoke form for different diseases. As a method of drug administration, smoking is important as it's a simple, inexpensive, but very effective method of extracting particles containing active agents. More importantly, generating smoke reduces the particle size to a microscopic scale thereby increasing the absorption of its active chemical principles. However, the hazards of inhaling a particulate are unacceptable to some people. Although the use of marijuana for medicinal purposes has been recorded for centuries, it has only recently become a subject of intense public scrutiny. So far, only a few examples of medicinal smoke have been studied in detail (for example marijuana). Smoke-based medicinal substances represent multiple opportunities for studies on the chemical constituents, applications, and introduction and preparation of new drugs and dosage forms.
Further Information
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